Women Issues: Patriarchy vis-à-vis Work

Women issues: Patriarchy vis-à-vis Work

"Women from the lower caste is worst form of life"

B.R. Ambedkar

Women in domestic sphere → confined to 'Private space', i.e., home → Private Patriarchy

Impact of Globalisation 

Women are now entering into Public Sphere due to globalisation, industrialisation, mechanisation of domestic chores, high cost of living, etc.

But still Patriarchy can be seen in Public Sphere also. This is known as Public Patriarchy, a concept given by Sylvia Walby.

Women vis-à-vis Agriculture 

• Around 84% of women depends on agriculture for their livelihood. However, mostly they are confined in labour intensive jobs which does not require skill labour.
• According to census 2011, only 32.8% of women are registered as primary workers.

From the above data following observation can be made -

1. Feminisation of agriculture
2. Women constitute unskilled labour
3. Mostly working in cavity of unpaid labour

Question 

Discuss the economic and socio-cultural factors responsible for feminisation of agriculture in India.

Feminisation of Agriculture - Increased participation of women in agriculture is referred as feminisation of agriculture.

The feminisation of agriculture has created opportunities for economic development of women however, it does not guarantee it. (it can be written as conclusion)

Economic Factors 

1. Male specific distress migration (Agricultural distress & Lack of alternate job opportunity → Male specific Migration).
2. Poverty → To sustain family income, women go outside to work in fields.
3. Majority of farmers are small and marginal (84% as per Economic Survey 2017), so they can't afford to hire labour. Therefore, they are dependent on the women of the family.
4. Landless labour → work on the lands of others for wages & women constitute cheap labour. That's why big farmers often prefer women labourers.
5. Globalisation & Industrialisation → created job opportunity limited to skilled labour and due to the lack of proper skill women are confined to unskilled jobs (mostly agriculture).

Socio-Cultural Factors 

1. Concept of 'Flexible labour' (given by Surinder S. Jhodhka). Women constitute Flexible labour, since they have less bargaining power.
2. Cultural acceptance of women working on land.
3. Easy to manage 'Dual burden' while working on land.
4. Increasing incidences of farmer's suicide.
5. Feminisation of old age. (Sex ratio of 1033 women per 1000 men above 60 years of age)

Challenges faced by women in Agriculture sector 

Driving factors behind Agriculture -

• Land 
• Credit
• Technology

And women do not have easy access to any of them.

Challenges - 

1. Census 2011 data says that only 12.8% of land holdings are owned by women. Hence, we can conclude that women lack the ownership rights.
2. In the absence of ownership, there is a lack of access to institutional credit. hence, their dependence on moneylender increases which further aggravates their economic disability.
3. Due to the lack of education and skill development, women fails to reap the benefits of technological upgradation. 
4. Secondly, with more and more technology and mechanisation, manual labour will be automated and women will lose their jobs.
• As per the estimate of McKenzie Institution, 12 Million women will lose jobs by 2030 die to automation.
5. Lack of recognition of women in agriculture sector.
• According to Oxfam Report 80% of the food and 90% of the dairy production is done by women. However, they are still confined to unpaid labour. 
6. Poor representation of women in farmer organisations. Hence, their issues remain unaddressed.
7. According to Corteva Agriscience, 78% of women farmers are facing gender discrimination.

According to FAO, if women is given equal access as that of men with respect to land, credit and technology; agricultural productivity will increase by 4%.

Question 

"Feminization of agriculture has led to women empowerment." Critically analyse the statement in the context of Indian society.

Answer 

• Define Feminisation of Agriculture and Women empowerment
• Opportunities (economic and social) provided by this
• Problems associated with agriculture wrt women
• Way forward/Suggestions and examples

Way forward/Suggestions:

1. Promotion of SHGs and Co-operatives, Collective farming.
2. Inheritance rights should be provided to women in spirit.
3. Judicial implementation of land reform.
4. Gender friendly interventions with respect to agricultural extension service.
5. Government flagship schemes like Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana, Food Security Mission, Mission on Seed, etc. must include women centric strategies also.
6. Krishi Vigyan Kendra should promoted to educate and train women farmers.
7. Women should be given more representation in farmer organisations so as to enable then to voice their concerns.
8. Collateral free credit should be provided to women.

Examples - (Women SHGs & Co-operatives)

1.   Amul → related to Operation flood

SEWA (Self-employed Women Association) → established 6000 dairy Co-operatives run explicitly by the women → women empowerment

2.   Kudumbshree Model of Kerala to wipe out absolute poverty through community action.

It has three component -

1. Micro-credit
2. Entrepreneurship
3. Empowerment

It provides for 

• Equal access to credit and technology to both men and women.
• Collateral free loans/credit to the women.
• Gender based interventions with respect to agricultural extension services (tools which suited to women were made).
• Skill training to women.
• Ownership rights to women.

Women vis-à-vis Industrial Sectors 

According to consulate general of Sweden, in India the participation of women in industrial sector is between 3-12% which is very less.

The reason for this low participation is as follows -

1. Lack of awareness with respect to opportunities in this sector.
2. Lack of women in senior position. Therefore, there is a lack of role models.
3. Although the percentage of women in higher education has increased from 39% to 46%. It has not resulted in corresponding increase in their labour force participation because of -
1. Career break (either due to domestic roles or due to reproductive responsibility)
2. Problem of dual burden.
3. Lack of flexible working condition.
4. Problem of accessibility with respect to industries (due to location of industries).
5. Safety and security concerns.

Women vis-à-vis Service Sector 

According to ILO, Women's participation in service sector along with the industrial is less than 20%.

Within service sector, there is concentration of women in certain jobs.

Despite education gender gap is huge in work force.

The reason for this are -

1. Restricted mobility after marriage.
2. Socialisation for domestic roles.
3. Lack of investment in vocational and technical training of women.
4. Career choices due to gender stereotype.
5. Automation of the clerical jobs.

Women vis-à-vis Informal Sector 

Patriarchy → deprivation of women (limited access to education, skill development, formal job opportunity, etc) → confined to informal sector which is associated with lack of minimum wages, social security benefits, prospects of career growth, etc. → deprivation of women

According to ILO, if we combine women in informal sector along with women in part-time jobs in India, it exceeds the Number of men. Hence, we can say that there is a "Feminisation of Informal Sector" in India.

Issues 

1.   Female labour force participation (FLFP) 

Statistic 

• According to ILO, with respect to FLFP India's ranking is 121 out of 131.
• According to Global Gender Gap report published by WEF, with respect to economic participation, India's rank is 149 out of 153.
• Currently Female labour force participation ration is 24.8%. 

Note - India is only country where Economic gap (149/153) is greater than the political gap (18/153).

Causes 

1. Increased in household income result into domestication of women.
2. Safety and security concerns for women along with the perception that women is associated with the prestige of the family.
3. Caste system which restricts the mobility of the women in the labour market.
4. Lack of incentives to work due to wage gap, ridiculing by society, dual burden, etc.
5. Innovation and technology has reduced the number of jobs which can absorb women.
6. Career break
7. The nature of economic growth in India is such that it has failed to create job opportunities in the sectors which can absorb women.
8. Feminisation U-Hypothesis

Increase in enrollment of women in secondary education → decline in labour force participation (15-24 Years) → but later it increases the over labour force participation of women

Implications 

1.   At individual level 

• Lack of financial independence
• Lack of opportunities for social mobility
• Lack of ability to bring social change
• All these result into self-alienation

2.   At family level

• It negatively impacts the standard of living of the family

3.   At National level

• It negatively impacts the prospects of economic growth.
• According to IMF chief, if Female labour force participation is equal to Male labour force participation, the GDP of India will increase by 27%. Also, it will help in reaping the benefits of demographic dividend.

4.   At International level

• With respect to nation at global level the potential of India to emerge as a global power is threatened due to the dismal performance of India in various global gender specific indicators.

2.   Wage Gap 

Statistic

• According to ILO report, the pay gap in India is more than 30%.

Reason for pay gap 

1. Glass ceiling
2. Undervaluation of care work done by the women
3. According to OECD, the pay gap exists due to the lack of bargaining power among the women.
4. Career break due to parenthood duty, preference for male employees over female employees and lack of flexible work opportunities, etc are responsible for wage gap.

3.   Violence against Women 

4.   Sexual harassments

Government Efforts (Maternity benefit act) 

Premise - to prevent the withdrawal of women from the labour market due to their reproductive bahaviour has resulted into the passage for implementation Maternity benefit act.

Provision 

1. Applicable only to Formal sector.
2. 26 Weeks of paid leave for first and second child (earlier it was 12 weeks).
3. It can be availed 8 weeks before the due date.
4. There is also provisions for adopting and commissioning mother (for child of less than 3 months)
5. If there is more than 50 female employees working in an enterprise, then a Creche facility must be provided and minimum of 4 times visit is allowed.
6. Mandatory to provide awareness with respect to Maternity benefit act.

Analysis 

For the motion -

1. The clause of 26 weeks is much higher than the minimum standard set by ILO which is 14 weeks.
2. 18 lakh women work force in the organised sector will be benefitted from this amendment.
3. It will ensure income security and early childhood care of the child.

Against the motion - 

1. Majority of women is working in informal sector whereas the act is limited to formal sector only.
2. It will re-enforce the gender stereotype with respect to parental role.
3. The desirability of women in the labour market will decline.
4. The competitiveness of smaller companies will be negatively impacted due to increase in the financial burden.
5. Women might lose touch with the work related development due to longer leaves and will lag behind their colleagues once they resume work.
6. It will further aggravate the wage gap.
7. It can dis-incentivised the the adoption of older children (children of more than 3 months).  

Way forward 

1. International examples can be replicated in the context of India.
• For example - In Singapore, 16 weeks of paid leave is given where financial burden is equally shared by teh company and government. Similarly in Sweden 480 days of parental leave is provided which can be split between the couple (father and mother)
2. The benefits of leave should be extended to informal sector also.
3. The idea of paternity leave need to be promoted.
• For example - Zomato India provides 26 weeks of paid paternity leave. UNICEF provides 16 weeks of paid paternity leave.
4. Flexible working condition, work from home culture, etc. need to be encouraged. So, that the women would not lose touch with the work related developments.

Question for practice 

To what extent recently amended Maternity benefit act will increase the Female labour force participation. Discuss.

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Note - This is my Vision IAS Notes (Vision IAS Class Notes) and Ashutosh Pandey Sir's Public Administration Class notes. I've also added some of the information on my own. 

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