Society: Caste System in India

Caste System in India

"Politics is like an enterprise and politicians are like entrepreneurs. They know how to use resources to optimum level."

Rajni Kothari

★  Concept of Caste

★  Models of Caste System

• Varna
• Jati

★  Features of Caste System

★  Transformation of Caste System

★  Role of Caste in politics

★  Contemporary issues

• Reservation
• Dominant Caste demanding reservation
• Dalit Capitalism
• Untouchability

Caste - It is defined as a system of Social Stratification which consist of hierarchically arranged closed endogamous strata where membership is ascriptive, contact is restricted and mobility is theoretically impossible.

Social Stratification - When there is different access to resources based on hierarchical arrangement, it is known as Social Stratification.

Models of Caste System 

1.   Varna System 

• It is a book view, i.e., it is sourced from religious scriptures.
• Different theories existed to describe Varna System. For example - Divine Origin Theory, Racial theory by Risley, Charismatic endowment theory or Guna theory, etc.
• It is a pan India framework, i.e., this system is existed in all over the India.
• Its purpose was economic cooperation and social cohesion.

2.   Jati System

• It is a field view and is empirically varifiable.
• It is based on the principle of purity and pollution.
• 3 characteristics features of Jati System are -
1. Hierarchy
2. Separation of contact
3. Occupational division of labour

Initially, only endogamous marriages were allowed, i.e., intercaste marriages were prohibited.

Exception - Anuloma was allowed.

Anuloma and Pratiloma Marriage 

Upper Caste Female + Lower Caste Male → Pratiloma Marriage

Upper Caste Male + Lower Caste Female → Anoloma Marriage

Pratiloma Marriage was not at all accepted in the society and their offsprings were known as Untouchables. Pratiloma Marriage might lead to 'Honour Killing'.

On the other hand, Anuloma Marriage could be accepted in the society.

In India, generally the Caste System of social stratification is based on principle of purity and pollution. It has three characteristics features -

1. Hierarchy
2. Separation of Contact
3. Occupational division of labour

Features of Caste System 

1. Innate nature (i.e., you born in your caste and you will die in your caste)
2. Hierarchy
3. Endogamy
4. Common Sality (rules with respect to exchange of food and water)
5. Occupational division of labour (i.e., the occupation is pre-determined by birth and every caste is suppose to treat their occupation as their religious duty)
6. Disability and privileges
7. There are Caste Council to ensure that the Caste rules are strictly followed.

Transformation of the Caste System 

Traditional -

• Traditionally it was based on the concept of 'Purity and Pollution'.
• Features -
• Hierarchy
• Separation of contact
• Occupational division of labour

Forces of Change 

• Industrialisation
• Urbanisation
• Globlaisation
• Modern Value System
• Role of state
• Affirmative actions
• Land reforms
• Mandal Commission
• Abolition of Untouchability, etc

Industrialisation → Factory led production & Job based on skills → emergence of Caste Neutral Jobs (which challenged the occupational division of labour)

Urbanisation → Urbanism → which is characterised by Secular pattern of living, anonymity, heterogeneity, individualism, etc. → which challenged the separation of contact

For example - People living/moving to urban areas does not care about the caste/race/religion, etc of the the neighbours. They are living anonymously, which resulted in heterogeneity (i.e., different sections of people living together).

Globalisation → Industrialisation, Urbanisation, Secular Pattern of living etc. → which challenged the traditional system of caste restrictions.

Modern Value System → based on Rationality & Logic → which challenged the hierarchy based on purity and pollution.

Role of State

1.   Affirmative Actions (like Reservation)

• Provides opportunities for educations to backward sections
• Provides opportunity for jobs
• Provides many economic opportunities like easy access to institutional loans, subsidies, etc.
• Provides opportunities of gaining political powers, etc.

All these provides opportunity for social mobilisation (Secular Mobilisation) → which challenged the traditional notions of Caste system.

Social Mobility - Social mobility means improving social status in the society through secular means (Social mobility).

Drawback of Reservation -

• The benefits of reservation is not equally reaped by all sections of backwards, which created a certain section within the backwards who reaped all the benefits and thus majority remains underprivileged.
• Thus, it led to the emergence of "Class within Caste".
• Thus, traditionally the community which is homogeneous now becomes heterogenous with emergence of 'Class within Caste' or 'Elitism'.
• So, there is a strong demand of 'Creamy layer concept' or 'Quota within Quota' concept in all backward sections including SCs.

2.   Land reforms

• At the time of Independence, Indian Society was divided into following groups -
• Zamindars
• Rich Peasants
• Middle and Small Peasants
• Share Croppers
• Landless labourers
• The benefit of Abolition of Zamindari Act and Land reforms was mostly reaped by Rich Peasants who acquired large tracts of land. They are also supported by Middle and Small Peasants.
• Thus, the Rich Peasants got both support (political power) and economical power which led to the emergence of a new concept called 'Dominant Caste'.

So, with the emergence of land reforms, there emerged a section who irrespective of their status in traditional caste hierarchy became socially dominant dur to land ownership, numerical strength and political power.

For example - Jaat, Gujjar, Patel, Pattedar, Reddi, Khamma, etc.

3.   Mandal Commission

• With Mandal Commission implementation, there was an alteration in caste structure where instead of vertical arrangement with stigma, there was horizontal competition for backward section (i.e., peoples were fighting to get the tag of backwards so that they would get the benefits of Reservations and other affirmative actions of the government).

Caste has been dislodged from religious domain, i.e., to some extent purity and pollution concept has been diluted. However, now it has entered the consciousness of the people especially during electoral politics.

Role of Caste in Politics (Politics - Instrument to rule)

Situations during Pre-Independence - 

• Christian Missionaries spreading the message of Christianity against the dogmatic practices of Hinduism as well as Islam (as a reformatory movement)
• The spread of English and Secular education led to the emrgence of New Westernised Elite Class which wanted to reform their religion. 
• Reform within Hinduism → Caste System → threatened the hegemony of Upper Caste.

Also one of the aspect of the spread of Modern education, Industrialisation and Job opportunities was that They was mostly reaped by Higher Caste which led to the emergence of 'Entrenched Caste'.

Entrenched Class - Those who have consolidated their position with respect to all aspect of society (political, economical and social) is termed as Entrenched class.

Upper class reaped the benefits of education and job offered by the Britishers. Hence, their position got consolidated in every aspect of life. They were known as 'Entrenched class'.

Situations after Independence -

Phase 1 

• Land Reform → led to the emergence of Dominant Caste (Rising Caste)
• Thus, there existed a struggle for power between Entrenched Caste and Dominant Caste.

The Phase 1 was characterised by the struggle between entrenched and dominant caste, since there can't be two swords in one sheath.

Phase 2 (Politicisation of Caste)

• Entrenched caste as well as Dominant caste were started to form multi-caste alliances with the lower caste to acquire majority, i.e., to acquire political power.

The Phase 2 was characterised by the manipulation of lower caste people on caste line both by upper and dominant caste to strengthen their vote bank. This is known as 'Politicisation of Caste'.

Phase 3 

• With further penetration of industrialisation, secular education, multi-cultural alliances, etc. the caste identities will cease to exists (as per Rajni Kotari)
• But in India, instead of this After Politicisation of Caste there emerges Castesisation of Politics, which led to the emergence of caste based political parties like BSP, RJD, SP, VIP, etc.

It was expected that with secular education, industrialisation, multi-cultural alliances; the caste identities will cease to exist. 

However, this Phase never emerged in India. Instead there emerged "Castesization of Politics".

Rajni Kothari - Politics is like an enterprise and politicians are like entrepreneurs. They know how to use resources to optimum level.

Two resources of Politics - 

1. Caste 
2. Religion

Contemporary issues -

According to National Family Health Survey - 3, only 11% marriages are inter-caste. Hence, Endogamy is still practiced.

Also, there is still an existence of caste based association in different spheres like -

• Political sphere - Harijan Sevak Sangh, Bhim Sena, BSP, etc
• Economical sphere - Dalit Indian Chamber of Commerce & Industry (DICCI), NSCFDC, etc
• Social sphere - Dalit Sahitya, Vaaishya educational society, etc
• Technological sphere - Caste based matrimonial websites, etc

Even the concept of occupational division of labour on the basis of purity and pollution is still practiced. For example - Manual scavenging

Ghettoization

Ruler area → Upper caste people are living in core areas whereas the lower caste people are living on the peripheries of the village.

The ruler lower caste people have limited access to education, skill development, etc. → thus, when they migrated to Urban centres, they get jobs in informal sectors → low income → thus, they can't afford to live in core areas where cost of living is very high. Hence, they settled at the outskirts of the urban centres. → this is referred as Ghettoization (staying together because of certain commonality/disability)

Ghettoisation - The people of ruler area are migrating to urban areas in order to uplift their social status. However, in the absence of education and skill, they are confined to informal sectors. Hence, replicating the inequalities with respect to occupation, residential separation, etc. This process is termed as Ghettoisation.

PYQs 

Caste system is assuming new identities and associational form. Hence, caste system can't be eradicated in India. Comment.

Answer 

• Introduction: 
• Definition of Caste System
• Linking para: 
• How caste has been a discriminatory practice
• Caste system as a social grouping is not discriminatory but the manner in which it has been practiced/persisted is discriminatory
• The concept of purity and pollution
• Various forces of changes which tries to eradicate the discriminatory practices
• Body: 
• Caste system has shown immense resilience, infact it has assumed new identity (Class within caste, Dominant Caste, Mandalisaiton, etc) and association (Political, Economical and Social). 
• Caste has became the basis of existence.
• Conclusion: 
• Although it has shown immense resilience, even then efforts have to be made to eradicate the discriminatory aspect of the caste system.
• Way forward/Suggestions -
• Value based education without any ideological colouration
• Inter-caste marriages need to be promoted
• Doing away with the concept of surname
• All the stakeholders need to be caste neutral especially political and administrative stakeholders
• Judicial implementation of all the provisions of Constitution of India and Statutory laws both in letters and spirit.

PYQs

Has caste lost its relevance in understanding the multi-cultural Indian society. Elaborate your answer with illustration.

Answer 

• Introduction:
• How India is the multi-cultural society
• How caste is no longer specific to only Hindu community, it is also found in Islam, Sikhism and even among tribal communities.
• Caste has become pertinent feature of overall Indian society and is no longer specific to Hindu community.
• Body:
• Define: Multi-Cultural
• How caste has penetrated through these diverse sections of the society → forces of changes
• New forms of caste system
• Conclusion

"Caste as a social grouping is not a menace but we can't be pessimistic about the discriminatory aspect of caste system since it has been one of the biggest threat to the social fabric of our country." 

Untouchability - It is defined as the practice of ostracising minority group by segregating them from the main stream by social custom or legal mandate.

It has three dimensions -

1. Exclusion
2. Humiliation
3. Exploitation

There are different perspectives with respect to who constitute the Untouchables. The following different categories of people were considered as untouchables -

1. Progeny of Pratiloma Marriages.
2. Involved in polluting activities such as disposal of dead cattles, manual scavenging, consumption of beef, etc.
3. Broken Man Theory of Dr. B.R. Ambedkar - According to which the nomadic tribes were referred as untouchables and they had low status, low standard of living and performed unclean occupation.
4. Chandalas - Those who deals with disposal of corpses (human dead bodies).

There were various restrictions imposed on the Untouchables. For example - Social isolation, working at night (so that during day time they will not come in contact with others), no ownership of property, work without wages, restrictions/segregation with respect to occupation, restriction in attending religious activities, marriages, etc.

Reservation in India 

Reservation is a form of affirmative action whereby percentage of seats are reserved for the people belonging to socially and educationally backward communities and SCs and STs.

The rationale behind the reservation policy was to provide equality of opportunity to the discriminated section of people, i.e., to correct the historical injustice and to give effect the re-distributive agenda of the state.

Debate with respect to Reservation policy 

1.   In support of Reservation

• Meritocracy is meaningless without equality of opportunity.
• In democracy, it is a political necessity to give representation to all the sections of society.
• To reduce the gap between have's and have not's.
• To ensure social justice or social empowerment or inclusive growth.
• To reduce possibility of social unrest.
• To promote national cohesion.
• To create potential for reaping benefits of demographic dividend.

2.   Against Reservation

1. It compromises on merit.
2. It has strengthened caste consciousness.
3. It widened social cleavages.
4. It created a new group with in the caste - 'Class within the Caste'.
5. It resulted in the feeling of relative deprivation among the poors from upper caste, which might resulted into violence.
6. It becomes a tool in the hands of politicians to serve their vested interests.

Way forward/Suggestions:-

1. New yard stick to determine the backwardness should be introduced. For example - National legal service authority (NLSA) judgement 2014, which provided OBC status to transgenders.
2. De-reservation on the basis of social mapping.
3. Complete overhauling of the education system. For example - 
• Bringing secondary education within the ambit of RTE Act.
• Making the entire school education qualitative and at par.
• Making the initial schooling (primary and secondary education) qualitative as well as inclusive.
• Initial education (qualitative & inclusive) → both upper and lower caste of people will get the same knowledge → no need for reservation in higher education and job opportunity
• All India Survey on higher education (AISHE) 2020 report - 
• Enrolment rate at primary level - 89.7% (97%)
• Enrolment rate at secondary level - 27.1% (26.3%)
• This report shows that the majority of student drop out schools after primary level. Thus, there is a dire need of taking steps to stop this dropping out.
• Also, those vulnerables (backwards) who get access to higher education are much better off as compared to others in the group. And at the same time they will again take advantage of reservation which resulted in the creation of A Class within Caste.
4. Agriculture sector needs to be made lucrative so as to reduce the dependence on government jobs.
5. Perception management is the need of the hour.
• Perception: "Reservation is the means not an end".
6. Promote the culture of self employment. So as to transform an individual from job seeker to job giver.

"Future belongs to nations with grains not with guns"

M.S. Swaminathan

Questions for practice 

Reservation policy has been a useful tool to promote empowerment and social mobility. To what extent do you agree with the statement.

Inclusion of dominant caste in the OBC list is not the solution to the challenges they are facing in the job market. Comment.

Answer 

• Definition of Dominant Caste
• How traditionally they were dominant irrespective of their status → they had land ownership, political power, social domination, etc
• But over the period of time because of agricultural distress, obsession with city life; currently they are facing certain problems in the labour market. As a result there has been a strong demand for inclusion under OBC category.
• However, their inclusion will not serve the purpose.
• Give way forward/suggestions.

Why dominant caste is demanding reservation? 

Background of Dominant Caste -

• Agricultural Comminity
• Position got consolidated due to land reforms and green revolution
• Didn't reap the benefits of educational opportunity

Contemporary issues faced by the Dominant Caste -

• Agriculture is in distress.
• Lack of alternative job opportunities.
• Obsession with the city life.
• Skewed sex ration (only wrt Jats) - account to Christophe Jefferlotte

Skewed Sex ration → bargaining power of bride increases → demanding bridegroom with government jobs (as agriculture is in distress) for a stable future → they demand reservation

• Shrinking jobs in public sector especially group C and D jobs.
• The contractual nature of jobs are emerging. For example - According to Indian staffing federation 44% of government employees currently are on contractual jobs.

Why giving reservation is not a solution? 

• Due to less number of government jobs any increase in reservation will only aggravate the situation.

Way forward/Suggestion -

• Develop agriculture
• Skill development & Entrepreneurship
• Good qualitative and affordable education to all
• Perception management

Dalit Capitalism 

The term 'Dalit Capitalism' has been coined by Jyoti Roy Phule. And it refers to the socially marginalised sections who are economically derived.

Chandrabhan Prashad has defined Dalit Capitalism as when Capitalism is seen as a solution for upliftment and emancipation of dalits. It is referred as Dalit Capitalism (i.e., ability of dalit class to own a business or enterprise).

Question for practice 

Is dalit capitalism penacea for all dalit problems in the context of India? Discuss.

Answer 

• For the motion
• It creates the opportunity for economic empowerment of dalits.
• It promotes culture of self employment among dalits.
• It helps them to transform from job seeker to job giver.
• The government is also taking pro-active measures in promoting entrepreneurship. For example - Standup India, Startup India, Udayami Yojana, etc.

However, it is only a necessary condition for emancipation not the only sufficient condition.

• Against the motion
• The problem of social acceptance have not been addressed. As a result, the caste rigidity will act as a hurdle at various social, economical and politico-administrative levels.
• Due to lack of adequate skills and education, they will not be able to reap the true benefits of dalit capitalism.
• Capitalism per se is exploitative and promotes inequalities. Hence, only the elite section within the dalits will be able to reap the benefits which will increase the intra-inequality (inequality within the caste).
• Dalit capitalism still lags in uplifting the poorest of poor since it does not focus on the issue of social justice, social inclusion, problem of land alienation, violence, etc.

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